Illness, both mental and physical, though based on universal physiological factors, is in its expression highly culturally patterned.
One becomes "sick" or "crazy" in a well defined culturally delimited way. Concepts of health and illness are based on a value system and they are culture-bound.
Every culture has a theory or theories of mental illness. Various forms of therapy are developed by every culture as well. These standards of behavior reflect the values of the group.
However, major categories of mental disorders may be universal. Schizophrenia, for instance, is now believed by many to be caused by some kind of biochemical imbalance.
Some Asian, Middle East and Near East societies provide therapy within a complex of what has been described by Westerners as magic or ritual. Such is the case of the Iranian culture which traces its lineage through 2500 years of Persian history to the most ancient Aryan peoples .

The people who live in Kurdistan and other provinces in Iran depend on native "healers” for treatment of physical and mental disorders, as well as for spiritual guidance and counseling. There is at least one healer, accompanied by his helpers (morids), in every town or village.
The healer is usually at least forty years of age and must possess an adequate knowledge of herbal medicine, human anatomy and physiology, and knowledge of the spirit or "psyche," as it has been called. This knowledge is based for the most part on classical books and ancient religious and scientific writings. Unlike the majority of specialists in Western countries, these healers have a holistic approach in their treatment of disorders.
Every Thursday night the people of a particular town or village gather at the mosque or a room adjoining to it, to perform what they call Zekr (remembering God). This is no doubt a religious ceremony, but it is never­ the less their most common form of psychotherapy. The room where they sit is simply decorated with a few carpets to sit on. The participants sit in a circle and repeat phrases such as "La illaha illa'ala," (There is no God, but Allah) under the direction of the healer.
This chanting is supposed to increase their spiritual awareness and heighten their consciousness, which in turn helps them to worship Allah and reflect more deeply upon themselves and their lives. This meeting ends with a prayer and the people go home. But the healers function doesn't end here.
The healers help people with their per­sonal and family problems on a daily basis. For instance, a man may come to him claiming that he feels guilty for despising the poor. In response, the healer might advise him to actually play the role of a beggar for a short time so that he can learn to sympathize with poor people instead of disliking them. Or, a woman who is being abused by her husband might seek the healer's counsel. He would most likely try to help her and her spouse to improve their marital relationship, and if necessary include the intercession of relatives and/or friends.
The healer's helpers aide him for the most part by helping victims of disaster or misfortune in a material way. For instance, they may assist an orphan in finding a home, or provide temporary shelter to the poor or persons who have lost their homes by fire, flood or earthquake. It is the healer himself who takes care of their more specific emotional and behavioral problems. Together, this team of persons provides assistance to the people of their community.
The types of problems Iranians face who live in the larger cities and towns of Iran do not differ drastically from the problems that are common to the people living in the smaller towns and villages of Kurdistan. However, people living in larger communities may experience more problems due to the faster pace of life and other conditions associated with living in an urban industrial setting. In particular, they may encounter an increased number of family related problems that occur as family members spend less time at home and fall victim to outside influences. For example, a young man or woman: may get involved with drugs, underground politics or sexual experimentation and, thus, become social outcasts.
The healers of Kurdistan typically see a number of people suffering from stress and anxiety, including children, who live within a very competitive and restrictive social structure. Any deviation from cultural norms may promote guilt or anxiety in them. The loss of virginity, for instance, may contribute to hysterical reac­tions or obsessive-compulsive symptoms in some girls.

Psychotherapy, the treatment of problems of mental health, can be defined as a series of contacts between a socially sanctioned healer and a patient who seeks relief; It is the treatment of personality disturbances by psychological means. Many different techniques of therapy are found scattered around the world; it is also true that they are not distributed evenly. Certain techniques occur much more often than others, and each culture appears to have its own preferences.
The reason is that techniques of therapy are intimately related to culture. They are related to the theories of causation of illness, the personality types valued, and the goals of therapy in the culture. The last is a reflection of more general cultural values.
The goals of therapy are also culture bound and are related to the basic ideals of the society. In the United States, for instance, personality characteristics held in high regard are achievement, independence, responsibility and rational thinking. Therefore, goals of therapy which are usually considered appropriate for a patient in this country include: improved insight, improved personal efficiency, and improved social efficiency, and the techni­ques of therapy which best achieve these goals are psychoanalysis, insight-oriented therapy, behavior therapy, drug therapy and occupational therapy.
In other cultures the values, goals and techniques are often different. An example of this is seen in Kurdistan (Iran), whose unique form of psychotherapy is the focus of this study.
In order to present an adequate description of psychotherapy as it is practiced in Kurdistan, the author has found it necessary to include a discussion of several aspects of psychotherapy found in Kurdistan and in Western cultures such as; the meaning of psychotherapy, the function of the psychotherapist, therapy techniques and the theories behind them.

Purpose of the Study

The intent of this study was to present the importance of the psychotherapeutic techniques used in Kurdistan within a coherent scientific framework.
Specifically, the purpose of the study was as follows:

1. To describe and characterize the healers of psychotherapy in Kurdistan.
2. To fully document and describe the theories and techniques of psychotherapy as practiced by healers in Kurdistan.
3. To determine whether the theories and techniques of psychotherapy as practiced in Kurdistan are bound by pre-Western scientific concepts.
4. To determine whether the theories of psychotherapy as practiced in Kurdistan bear any resemblance to those used in Western cultures.
5. To determine whether the techniques of psychotherapy as practiced in Kurdistan bear any resemblance to those in Western cultures.

Importance of the Study

The form of therapy that can be applied to all psychogenic disorders and is best suited to accommodate the people of Iran must be broad enough to sa­tisfy the needs of people who live both in cities and in rural areas. The counselor/therapist must utilize all possible sources new and old; traditional and progressive that could aide in the treatment of a variety of clients.
This would render flexibility and a basic commitment to help all people as essential characteristics of the professional with a practice in Iran.
It is relatively easy to familiarize oneself with Western psychotherapists and their theories and techniques. But there is a general lack of information and knowledge about psychotherapists and the practices in other cultures. This study is important because it introduces the "healers" of Kurdistan and their therapy and techniques as a valuable resource to Iranians and to people living in other countries as well. In addition, it is important because it provides a case study of cross-cultural comparison that can help to find out more about similarities and differences as human beings living in different societies.

Scope of the Study

This study was concerned with the description of the therapeutic techniques used by the indigenous healers in Kurdistan, and whether or not their practices were similar to those used in the West. The investigator made no attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of these techniques, however, because of problems such as setting the criteria to be used in judging effectiveness, and the difficulties associated with trying to set up a control group or observe participants over long periods of time.
The study was limited to:
1. The discussion of mental disorders and their treatment which are thought to be psychogenic in nature; such as anxiety-reactions, conver­sion reactions, phobic reactions or obsessive compulsive reactions.
2. Including only data that were felt to be relevant.
3. Observations made by the researcher; that is , the observations of others were not used.
4. The fact that the researcher was not able to observe the healers consistently, or their clients except when they were being treated. There is a need for a longitudinal study in this regard .

Assumptions

The study was conducted under the following assumptions:
1. The healers in Kurdistan provide valuable therapy for their clients.
2. The therapy which the healers provide has some bases in Islamic religion.
3. There are both similarities and differences exist between the psychotherapy used in Kurdistan and Western cultures.
4. The researcher was able to record data as the events occurred naturally.

Psychotherapy in Western Culture

There are more than a hundred specific psychotherapies practiced in Western cultures, each unique in some ways but each expressing one of the three general orientations:
1) Psychoanalysis and other directive approaches;
2) Phenomenological approaches; including client-centered therapy, role therapy and Gestalt therapy and.
3) Behavior therapy, or approaches emphasizing behavior modification such as operant conditioning or systematic desensitization.
In addition to these therapies there are also group therapy and family therapy.
"The basic function of psychotherapy is to provide a situation in which learning can take place. The patient comes to the therapist with a set of behavior that is ineffective and inadequate in dealing with his environment. The job of the therapist is to do something about it " (Lundin: 399).
In determining the specific goals of therapy, theorists typically have indicated a range of attitudes, values and behaviors which they see as deviant and needing to be modified or eliminated. In some instances (as in the case of the above quotation) the definition of the goals of psychotherapy is very simple; in others highly elaborate and descriptive.
One topic that has been widely debated among Western psychiatrists is whether or not the personality characteristics of the psychotherapist are necessarily important. At one end of the spectrum are those in the client-centered school who believe that the personality characteristics of the therapist constitute the most important components of the therapeutic relationship. At the other end are behavior therapists and psychoanalysts who maintain that therapy is primarily the application of techniques, and that the personality characteristics of the therapist are secondary or unimportant altogether.
However, studies seem to indicate that, since the therapist-patient relationship is by definition a personal one, the personality characteristics of the therapist are an important factor contributing to the successful treatment of the client or patient. In a study of vocational counseling, Seeman concluded that methods are not as important in accounting for differing client reactions as are the characteristics of "warmth, interest and understanding."
Friedler compared three differently oriented groups of therapists with three groups of relatively inexperienced therapists. He found that, among the experienced therapists, personality and experience, rather than different methods, accounted for differences in therapeutic outcomes. This view is also supported by Brammer and Shostrom who wrote that, "The counselor must be free to move naturally, quickly and easily in his thinking and feeling in order to adapt to the subtle nuances of client behavior. "

In most cases, emotional disturbances are temporary, surface phenomena that require no more than the help and care of family and/or friends .
However, if such disturbances occur repeatedly or are of a severe and more complex nature then expert help is called for. According to Hilgard, therapist is an expert whose resources of know­lege and experience are superior to that of the client. Typically then, the client relates his life's history and problems to the therapist so that the therapist can make appropriate recommendations. In this way, the therapists role may somewhat resemble that of an educator; he interpretes facts and imparts information to the client that can help him in an indirect or direct fashion.
Disturbed persons need the help of someone who understands the psychodynamics underlying maladjustment and one of the three specialists in personality disorders should be consulted; a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst or clinical psychologist.
Psychiatrists are physicians who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. They have been trained to differentiate between the organic and psychological causes of personality disorders. Psychiatrists recognize the fact that an illness that manifests itself primarily in physical symptoms, such as headache or fatigue, may be caused or aggravated by emotional stress. Or, on the other hand, a patient who is emotionally disturbed may appear to be so due to an organic cause such as brain damage or chemical imbalance. Psychiatrists who specialize in the function of the nervous system are called nueropsychiatrists , and those that have been specially trained to perform operations involving the central nervous system are called neurosurgeons. A psychoanalyst is also a psychiatrist; however, he has had more extensive training in psychoanalysis and/or other special methods of treating personality disorders.
The clinical psychologist currently practicing in America must have earned a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from an accredited university and completed at least one year internship in a mental hospital or clinic.
"Efforts are now being made in many states to obtain licensing for qualified clinical psychologists in order to guard against quacks infiltrating the proffession . . .  In recent years an increasing number of clinics have been set up that maintain teams trained people. The minimum staff of such a team consists of a clinical psychologist, psychiatrist, and a psychiatric social worker"(Lehner and Kube).

Psychotherapy in Other Cultures

Every society seems to have evolved some form of psychotherapy. Torrey divided therapists in other cultures into three categories the herbalist, diviner and healer, and said that they are roughly comparable to what we call a druggist, psychologist and psychiatrist; respectively. He also pointed out that mental illness everywhere is thought to be caused by one (or a combination ( of three things: biological events, experiential events or metaphysical events. In other words, the causes of mental illness 'may be attributed factors such as injury to the central nervous system, emotional shock, or as the results of supernatural intervention (eg. "Spirit possession”).
Different cultures classify disease in different ways. But in general, cultures other than American or European do so in a relatively simple and rational way; often on a purely functional base. For example Ozturk, who studied the people of Turkey, found that although there were many types of folk beliefs and ideas about mental illness, the most typical explanations were based on common sense. That is, the Turkish people from rural and industrialized areas believed that people went crazy because of lifes miseries, frustration, fatigue, or loss of a possesion and so on. At the same time, the remedies for mental illness were also quite simple in nature and included things like rest cures, good nourishment and marriage.
In all cultures the main function of the therapist is to treat illness. Therapists in Asian and Middle Eastern countries treat a wide range of problems, whether they stem from a physical, mental or social condition. Often the therapist is a religious figure as well. The method he uses in treating his patients has some connection to religious beliefs in this case. Examples of this type of therapist would include the Buddhist monks in Thailand, the hodjas in Turkey and also the healers of Kurdistan discussed in this paper. Soddy commented that metaphysical events like socery or angering a diety are used to explain mental illness in many parts of the non-Western world. This close association between the metaphysical and mental illness is how he explained the overlap in roles of religious figures and therapists commonly found in all areas of the globe including the West .
The relationship between the therapist and patient in other cultures is just as diverse as it is in the West. In British Ghana, the therapist does not accept very much responsibi­lity for his client. The client himself is responsible for his own recovery. On the other hand, in other places the client actually lives with the therapist for long periods of time if it is necessary, and the therapist constantly attends him until he is well again.
The therapist-patient relationship is in part determined by the fee paid for the therapist's services. In most cultures, the more successful a therapist is the more he costs. And, once a therapist has made a reputation for himself he can have the freedom to pick and choose his clients. But this is not always the case. Some therapists are interested in other things than money or prestige- like helping other people or because they seek their work as their "calling. " These therapists may actually live on small donations.
In regard to body contact in the therapist patient relationship, therapists in other cultures almost invariably use it more than Western therapists do. For instance, the Nigerian babalawa rubs the patient's body extensively, and carefully holds his head as he makes shallow cuts for the medicine (Prince). However, it might be added that as holistic medicine grows in popularity in the United States and European countries, this tendency may cease to exist.
In order to become a therapist in any culture, there is some minimal amount of training that is required. Zempleni wrote that even those who inherited their position as a therapist must still serve an apprenticeship for some time. In complex Western societies, of course, the therapist must have undergone extensive schooling and training. A psychiatrist, for example, must complete 4 years of college , 4 years of medical school, one year of internship, and finally 3 years of psychiatric residency training before he is considered qualified to work on his own. Prince pointed out that only a few cultures other than Western cultures actually have a formal examination at the end of training.
Kiev described how important culture is in defining illness, and in determining the recourse an ill person should take. Wittkower agreed with Kiev and pointed out that culture influences the content of mental symptoms. He found out for example, that delusions with a religious content (i.e . ) a person believing himself to be God) are much more prevelant in Christian societies as opposed to non-monotheistic ones. Kiev goes on to say that mental illness affects a person's entire being and involves the sufferer's world view, ethical values, self-image and his interactions with others. The therapist's role is, therefore, to be a mediator between society and the sick individual. His success depends not so much on his technique, but on his ability of his client to obtain the trust of his client and steer the faith of his client towards health
"The techniques of therapy all over the world are found to be the same. There is no technique used in Western therapy that is not also found in other cultures".
Some of the most common therapeutic techniques used by therapists all over the world include history taking, confession, suggestion, hypnosis and dream interpretation. History taking is particularly important in Morita therapy found in Japan. The patient is required to keep a daily dairy which is reviewd by the therapist and patient. Confession helps clients to share guilt and obtain emotional catharsis. The relieving of painful experiences by confession may also be therapeutic. Suggestion includes anything that is said to the client by the therapist, whether it is very direct or more subtle in nature (e.g. "you must do this to get well,” or "stop acting irresponsibly"). Hypnosis was reported to have been used in therapy in China 3,000 years ago, and it has been used by a group of Sufis in Afganistan to treat physical and mental disorders for quite some time as well. (Hallaji, 1964).
Dream interpretation is currently being used by native therapists in Turkey (Ozturk, 1965), Ghana (Jahoda, 1961), and the Phillippines (Stewart, 1955) to gain more knowledge of the patient's unconscious mind.
As it has already been mentioned, supernatural forces are most often believed to be the cause of mental illness. The Malays who tend to live in rural areas and are conservative in their life style believe in ghosts and spirits which are supernatural influences in their lives. Illness is thought to be caused by supernatural forces. Physical or mental afflictions may be due to the invasion of a spirit, loss of one's soul, or decrease in the soul's vitality. Traditional Malay "medicine” is almost magical and cures are effected by methods which control these supernatural forces (Kirk, 1970).
The Malay shaman, called a "bomoh ," cures mental illness by first identifying the bad spirit and then calling on a stronger spirit to drive the weaker one out of the victim (Winsted, 1961). Often in other parts of China a temple spirit is consulted for psychiatric patients. Spirit mediums are presumed to have direct access to gods and spirits. The spirit mediums are believed to be possessed by their guardian spirits through a state of trance and worship. Therefore, the patient is brought into first-hand contact with gods and spirits (Comber, 1958).
In an intensive study of the delusions of ten West Indian schizophrenics in English mental hospitals, Kiev found a predominance of religious and magical themes that were strongly related to the beliefs of normal West Indian immigrants who set high value on a fundamentalist approach to the Bible, believed in the phenomenon of charismatic personalities, and were conversant with and receptive to notions of obeah, ghosts, and religious healing (Kiev, 1963)
Pfister (1932), in an analysis of the symbolic processes, the breakdown of the patient's unconscious resistances, and the detection of ethological factors by the Shaman, demonstrated the close link between Navaho therapy and psychoanalysis. He maintained that the Indians penetrated to the unconscious motivation of the psychoneurotic disturbances under treatment and applied treatment individually.
Goldstein, et. ale (1980) wrote that theories of possession and witchcraft and the like are explanations of abnormal behavior, but they are not scientifically verifiable. Witchdoctors use mystical methods of therapy. Torrey in contrast to Goldstein wrote with regard to them:

“The techniques used by Western psychiatrists are, with few exceptions, on exactly the same scientific plane as the techniques used by witchdoctors. If one is magic, then so is the other”. Although there are numerous ethnographies describing the nature and function of African witch doctors, Indian shamen, and other primitive healers, few researchers have attempted to describe these persons from a psychological perspective. Torrey writes, "In contrast to the abundant anthropological literature, there are remarkably few psychiatric studies of therapists in other cultures." Furthermore, he mentions that most of the studies that were attempted concluded with remarks like, "It is difficult to fit mental disorders from that culture into Western diagnostic categories. "
And so, with this in mind, the author has set out to try and describe a people he has studied and the psychotherapy they practice in a way that can be understood by persons who are familiar with the terminology and general theories found in Western psychology.

Research Approach

There is currently little or no information available about psychotherapy as it is practiced in Kurdistan. However, the means which could gene­rate that information were accessible to the researcher. Therefore, the study involved a descriptive survey.
An application of the descriptive survey is to test whether a situation described by some theory exists in reality or not (Fox, 1969). A wide variety of statements are made by Asian and Middle Eastern scholars regarding the specific psychotherapy employed in those countries. One faces seve­ral research questions, such as: who are the psychotherapists in those countries, and are they comparable to those in the West? What are the similarities between the techniques these psychotherapists use in the Middle East and Asian countries and those used by psychotherapists in the Western countries? These questions lack answers and data, although research situations do exist. That is, there are accessible psychotherapeutic techniques in different Asian and Middle Eastern countries and there are research questions for which the descriptive survey is a perfectly appropriate research approach.
This research study was also past-oriented because it sought to illuminate the questions raised by an intensive study of material written by Muslim scholars from the beginning of Islam (A.D.620) in order to find the origins of the psychotherapy practiced in Kurdistan; to understand its bases in the past and relevancy to the present.
The research situation also involved direct observation. The healers and the healing process were observed as they occurred naturally and were recorded by the author. Local people, as well as skilled persons, helped with media production.
By directly observing the healers and being able to question them randomly, it was possible to formulate an adequate description of them and the techniques they used. For instance, answers to questions like, "how does the healer communicate with his clients?" or "do the healers use free association and dream analysis techniques?" became obvious.
Quite a number of observers accompanied the researcher. However, the researcher relied wholly on his own observations and discretion in compiling data relevant to the study. The data were obtained in a fashion such as would show the human interaction between healer and client (i.e. cause and effect; statement or question and reply).

Subjects

Fifty healers were interviewed by the author in a variety of situations. Each healer was interviewed two to three times a week for , approximately two hours at each sitting. The patients whom the author followed for a minimum of twelve months numbered seventy-five. All of these persons were suffering from neurotic disorders. The patients were interviewed two to three times; each time for about one hour.
The following table shows a breakdown of five categories of illness among the patients as categorized by the author.

Types of Neurotic Behavior Exhibited by Clients

Instrumentation

Instruments used for gathering data included unstructured interviews, filming, tape-recording and note-taking. The unstructured interview is a method of questioning in which questions are open and posed in a face to face situation. In this kind of interview, the questions and responses to them are spontaneous. At times, the author did rely on a list of questions, but he did not restrict himself to the list, omitting some questions and asking other additional questions that he thought of while conversing with the subjects. This allowed the maximum amount of freedom for all participants in expressing their thoughts. At the same time, using this method of questioning minimized the disturbances to the natural situation.

Data Collection

The data recorded represents only a portion of that which exists, and so it is not surprising that the author may have some concerns about the homogeneity of the conclusions he drew based on the information available to him. Data were randomly selected concerning the theoretical bases of the psychotherapy practiced in Kurdistan, primarily from literature and manuscripts of a historical nature.

Data Analysis

This part contains an account of the obs­ervations made by the author while he attended healing sessions performed by specific healers living in the towns and villages of Kurdistan. These observations provided answers to the research questions, as well as a detailed description of the healers and the techniques they employed. An attempt was made to present this information in a clear and objective way. Each of the research questions discussed and developed in the introduction was taken into consi­deration. Only data relevant to each of the questions were presented. Being able to review films and tapes of various events and interactions between the healers and clients, and those between both them and the author proved to be a useful method which allowed him to recall significant events and to see things as they happened in a different perspective.

Form and Basis of Psychotherapy in Kurdistan

Psychotherapy among the healers in Kurdistan is an old form of medical treatment based on a rational scientific foundation. The Holy scriptures by which the healers are in­fluenced are the Quran, the Gospel, the Torah, the Psalms and the Leaves of Abraham. However, of all the revealed books it is the Quran on which the healers depend most. The reason for the that is because Quran is the only Book which has not changed.
The other sources which the healers depend on are first the sayings of Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him) and then books and manuscripts left from Muslim scholars and thinkers such as AI-Farabi (950), AI-Razi (1029), Avecina (1037), Gazali (1111), Khayyam (1123), Rumi (1273), Sa'adi (1291) and Hafiz (1389). In general, the healers' psychological treatment is centered around the religion of Islam.
The healers practice a form of psychotherapy based on the science of psychodynamics. In other words, the psychotherapy used by the healers is based on an organized body of knowledge about the way the mind works. The libraries of the fifty healers to which the author had access have thousands of written materials and research studies regarding how to cure mental illness. Some of the materials are hand-written and as old as 2000 years. They are written in both Farsi and Arabic.

The Goals of Psychotherapy among the Healers

According to the healers and the books they rely on, psychotherapy encompasses rehabilitation of the patient, achievement of a constructive life, enabling the patient to recognize his assets and utilize them to better advantage, abling the patient to recognize and accept his limitations, to help the patient to become more self-reliant, to accept himself with his assets and liabilities, relief from anxiety, improvement of relationship with other people based on self-understanding and understanding of others, and the establishment of self-confidence .
If the patient already feels that he is able to be productive and to have satisfactory relationships, then further steps involve education rather than treatment. The healer's central task is learning to understand the patient; to help the patient see his own situation more clearly - to get new light. Sometimes a patient changes with only a little bit of psychotherapeutic help. And sometimes a longer period is needed.

Case Examples

In one case, a 35 year old man who was afraid that his drinking of alcohol was becoming habitual came to a healer for counseling. He was aware of his problem but didn't know how to solve it. After talking with the man, the healer discovered that his drinking behavior was encouraged by his peer group. Once the client became aware of this, he immediately broke ties with his old friends and made new ones who did not drink or tolerate it in others. After a few weeks, this man had been "cured. "
Another case involved a youth. The boy had long been the subject of neighborhood talk. He had developed a reputation at home and at school as a "troubled child." His teachers and schoolmates did not like him and so, not surprisingly, he did not do well in school and had fallen behind several grade levels. Finally, after he had run away from home, his parents decided to take him to a healer. The young man lived with the healer and participated in religious activities for about three months. He was treated kindly and learned to respond to people in new ways. He began to show keen interest in his studies because the teachers and people around him did not ostrasize him. After a while he was returned to his parents, but under the condition that they move to a new town and all make a new start.
Both of the previous examples have several things in common; in both cases the relationship of the therapist and his client was personal and direct, and at the same time the therapy involved changing the environment and habits of the two individuals voluntarily.
Not everyone who comes to the healer has a behavioral problem. In fact, many are interested in widening their religious experiences. Others who do have a specific problem are first treated for it before, or in addition to, parti­cipating in the various religious activities.
So, psychotherapy is considered to be a valuable supplement to religion. It enables the individual to have a deeper, more meaningful and more healthy kind of religion.

Becoming a Healer in Kurdistan

Healers have learned many theoretical approaches to the understanding of the human psyche. Their formal training teaches them about all psychic processes. They are trained in interviewing skills and in understanding the relationships of the patient with his family and his community. A healer is an expert in human disorders whose insights permit him to determine what is wrong with the individual and to decide what techniques can be most effective to produce changes in his client's maladaptive behavior.
The healer's students attend classes and the teaching hours are mixed with practicing. The classes begin in the very early morning and continue throughout the day. The training course includes such things as a memorization, both of a vast body of literature and healing tech­niques. Another aspect of the training of healers is the emphasis on self-control and self-knowledge.
The teaching classes contain instructions about the nature of the healing process. The mechanics of the techniques are taught to the students who want to become healer. There is no fee for learning. The students just pay Zakat (charity) to the healer if they wish.
What is taught is what has been handed down from teacher to teacher for centuries. There is at least a three-year healing residency requirement for a person who has finished formal learning. This is done under the supervision of a more experienced healer. This gives the new healer a chance to practice the things he has learned-various theories, how to control his thoughts and how to treat patients. If he makes any mistakes the older healer is there to help him.
The healers are generally between forty to eighty years of age. The author was impressed by one healer who was seventy-eight years old but who was in remarkable condition, both mentally and physically. He stood erect, was not overweight, did not show any signs of chronic disease like arthritis for instance, which is associated with old age. His hearing and sight were still intact and he had most of his teeth. His face was radiant and his eyes projected a deep sense of inner peace and thoughtfulness.
The healers usually encourage their child­ren to follow in their footsteps. Therefore, the training sons receive from their fathers discourages them from being attracted to city living. Knowledge is passed down from father to son. It is a common practice among the healers of Kurdistan to keep a family genealogy. Out of the fifty healers interviewed, two of them could trace their lineage back to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) Furthermore; all of their male ancestors had been healers. The following table shows how many previous generations of men, out of the remaining forty-eight healers, had also been healers.

Number of Healers and Their Past Generation

The father introduces his son to the public as a successor when he sees that he may die in the near future and the son takes his place. The son has already been practicing for years, but still it is necessary for him to be recognized publicly. So, on a certain prearranged day, the people of the town and surrounding villages gather in the house of the aged healer. During a very simple friendly and religious ceremony, the father gives his son his robe. If he has no son, the father gives his robe to his best and most knowledgeable student whom he has known for years.

Religious Techniques

Three religious techniques are used by healers. These are used as homework given to the patients to complete between therapy sessions.
1. The patients are told to call God. This, to the healers, enables the clients to put an end to all other thoughts and purify their minds without difficulty. The healing process is always started in the name of God and asking God for help. The patients practice what is called zekr "remembrance", the repetition of the holy words.
The patients sit in a circle and repeat phrases such as "La illaha illa'la," (There is no God, but Allah) under the direction of the healer. This chanting is supposed to increase their spiritual awareness and heighten their consciousness, which in turn helps them to worship God and reflect more deeply upon themselves and their lives. This meeting ends with a prayer and the clients go home.
This exercise, which is believed, can help to increase concentration and self-awareness is suggested to be repeated over and over when the patient is at home. Particular phrases from the Quran and Hadith are recommended by the healer to be repeated. This exercise is also suggested to be done during working and other times not just when the person is at home. Usually a handwritten copy is given to the patient as a guide for learning what sentences are more effective to repeat. This handwritten copy has sentences such as “God is the only one who can help me”, God is with those who are patient.
2. The patients who can fast are suggested to do so. It is believed that fasting enhances the feeling of inner peace, contentment and optimism. It teaches patience and preseverance and enhances the feeling of moral accomplishment. Fasting can be used to help a person learn to control excess behaviors, such as overeating too much sex and sleeping. .
A person who fasts must abstain from eating, drinking, smoking and engaing in sex from sun-up to sunset. He must also abstain during these hours from all vicious action, such as abusing, backbiting, anger, and jealousy.
3. The healers ask the patient to repent. Repentance of a publicly commited sin is done in public, and repentance of a secretly commited sin is done secretly. This is practiced during the free association technique, where the healer devotes total attention to the patient and listens both carefully and thoughtfully.
The healers consider Tauba (repentance (to be very important. So, it is necessary here to give a further explanation of its meaning and implications.
They define sin as breaking the laws of God stated in the Quran, as well as those deeds which generally harm society. Tauba actually means repentance for a sin by making promise not to do the same evil again and to return to good works. Repentance is considered to be the beginning of life for person who intends to walk in the normal way of life. It is the root of the fortune of those who are successful, the first step of a disciple, the key to guidance to the straight path. A principle in repentence is to turn away from sins, to know the major sins, to know man's progress and retrogression for virtues and vices, to know the causes of minor sins turning into sins, and to know the conditions of Tauba, search into past sins, expia­tion of sins and the classes of those who repent. Another principle to know the causes of making Tauba and the medicines for persons addicted to vices.